The Think City and PIV4: The Evolution of Norway’s Early Electric City Car
The development of the Think City and its predecessor, the PIV4, represents one of the earliest modern attempts to produce practical electric vehicles (EVs) for everyday use. Long before electric mobility became mainstream, the Norwegian company Think Global and its predecessor Personal Independent Vehicle Company developed small electric city cars designed to reduce emissions and urban congestion.
From experimental prototypes in the early 1990s to limited commercial production in the early 2010s, the Think City program went through several ownership changes, technological evolutions, and production challenges. Although the vehicles were produced in relatively small numbers, they helped pave the way for the modern electric vehicle industry.
Origins of PIVCO and the Early Electric Vehicle Vision
The story begins in 1991, when Norwegian entrepreneur Jan Otto Ringdal founded the Personal Independent Vehicle Company (PIVCO) in Bærum, Norway. The company aimed to develop lightweight electric vehicles suited for short-distance urban travel.
Early prototypes emphasized simplicity, lightweight construction, and environmentally friendly materials. The vehicles featured aluminum chassis structures and thermoplastic bodies, a design approach that kept weight low while resisting corrosion.
Several early experimental models were built:
- PIV2 – early prototype
- PIV3 (City Bee) – small electric city car used in demonstration projects
The PIV3, introduced in 1995, was used in the San Francisco Bay Area Station Car Demonstration Program, where electric vehicles were tested for commuting and public transport integration. Around 120 units were produced for testing.
The lessons learned from these prototypes directly influenced the development of the PIV4.
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Development of the PIV4
The PIV4 represented PIVCO’s first serious attempt at a production electric car. Development took place in the late 1990s, with engineering consultation from Lotus Cars, which helped refine the vehicle’s structure and dynamics.
The design retained several concepts from the earlier prototypes but introduced improvements such as:
- A stronger steel lower frame
- An ABS plastic roof
- A thermoplastic body shell
- Front-wheel drive powered by an electric motor
The PIV4 featured a top speed of approximately 90 km/h (56 mph) and a driving range of about 85 km (53 miles) per charge, which was competitive for early electric vehicles of the era.
Development costs strained PIVCO’s finances, and by 1999 the company required additional funding to move forward with production. At that point, the company was acquired by Ford Motor Company, which saw potential in the technology due to emerging emissions regulations.
The PIV4 would soon evolve into the production vehicle known as the Think City.
First Generation Think City (2000–2002)
The first-generation Think City entered production around 2000 under Ford ownership.
Production Years
- 2000–2002
Production Volume
- Approximately 1,005 vehicles produced during this period.
Key Specifications
- Electric motor with front-wheel drive
- Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery pack
- Range of roughly 85 km (53 miles)
- Top speed around 100 km/h (62 mph)
- Thermoplastic body panels
The vehicle was primarily a two-seat city car, though some configurations allowed a small rear seat for children.
Market and Leasing Programs
Instead of traditional retail sales, most vehicles were leased through demonstration programs in the United States and Europe. Over 370 units were delivered to North America as part of pilot programs in states such as California and New York.
These programs were designed to evaluate electric vehicles in everyday urban environments.
Trim Levels and Variants
The first-generation Think City did not have conventional trim levels. Instead, vehicles were offered in limited configurations depending on the program in which they were deployed. Variations mainly involved:
- Battery type and capacity
- Interior equipment
- Fleet-specific equipment
Despite positive feedback, the program faced challenges when U.S. emissions regulations were relaxed. Ford discontinued the project in 2002 and sold the company the following year.
Transition to Think Global
After Ford exited the program in 2003, the company changed hands several times before eventually becoming Think Global. Ownership passed through investment firms such as KamKorp before being relaunched by Norwegian investors in 2006.
Think Global aimed to revive the electric city car concept with a significantly improved version of the Think City.
Second Generation Think City (2008–2012)
The second-generation Think City, internally known as A306, represented a comprehensive redesign of the original vehicle.
Production Years
- 2008–March 2011 (Europe)
- November 2010–August 2012 (United States)
Production occurred primarily at Valmet Automotive in Finland, with additional assembly later taking place in Indiana, USA.
Key Specifications
The updated model featured numerous improvements over the original:
- Electric motor output: 30–34 kW
- Top speed: 110 km/h (68 mph)
- Range: up to 160 km (99 miles) per charge
- Weight: approximately 1,038–1,113 kg
- Front-wheel drive layout
Battery technology also improved, with both sodium-nickel (Zebra) and lithium-ion battery options available depending on the market.
By 2010, approximately 2,500 Think City vehicles had been produced, making it one of the early mass-produced electric vehicles.
Trim Levels and Configurations
Unlike many modern electric vehicles, the Think City had relatively simple trim structures. However, several configurations were offered.
Think City Base
The standard model included:
- Electric drivetrain
- Basic cloth interior
- Power windows and mirrors
- Central locking system
The vehicle was designed primarily for urban commuting and fleet usage.
Think City Comfort
Higher equipment levels included features such as:
- Air conditioning (introduced in later model years)
- Upgraded interior materials
- Improved infotainment options
- Additional safety equipment
Later models also introduced electronic stability control (ESP) and improved safety systems.
Battery Variants
Two major battery options were offered:
- Zebra sodium-nickel battery
- Lithium-ion battery pack
The lithium-ion variant provided better performance and range and was used in later U.S. production vehicles.
U.S. Production and Expansion Plans
In 2010, Think Global attempted to expand into the North American market. The company established an assembly plant in Elkhart, Indiana, with the goal of producing electric vehicles locally.
The facility assembled vehicles using components shipped from Finland, including the body and chassis. Lithium-ion battery packs supplied by EnerDel in Indianapolis were installed during final assembly.
In December 2010, the first U.S.-built Think City vehicles were delivered to the State of Indiana for government fleet use.
However, financial problems soon disrupted production.
Bankruptcy and End of Production
Despite technological progress, Think Global faced chronic financial challenges. Production was halted in March 2011, and the company filed for bankruptcy later that year.
Although the company’s assets were purchased by Electric Mobility Solutions AS, large-scale production never resumed. The final Think City vehicles were completed in the Indiana plant in August 2012, marking the end of the brand’s manufacturing operations.
Over its lifetime, the company produced several thousand electric vehicles, including prototypes and both generations of the Think City.
Design and Technology
One of the most innovative aspects of the Think vehicles was their thermoplastic body construction. This material offered several advantages:
- Resistance to corrosion
- Lightweight structure
- Lower manufacturing complexity
The cars also used modular battery systems, allowing upgrades as technology improved.
Despite their small size, the vehicles were fully road-legal and crash-tested, making them among the earliest highway-capable electric vehicles in the modern era.
Market Impact and Competition
During the late 2000s, the Think City was among a small group of modern production electric cars available worldwide. Other early EV competitors included:
- Tesla Roadster
- Mitsubishi i‑MiEV
- Nissan Leaf
- Smart Electric Drive
Although these vehicles eventually surpassed the Think City in sales and technology, the Think program demonstrated that practical electric vehicles could be produced for urban markets.
Future Outlook and Legacy
Even though production ended in 2012, the Think City program left a lasting legacy in the electric vehicle industry.
Key contributions included:
- Early development of modern electric city cars
- Demonstrating the feasibility of mass-produced EVs
- Introducing lightweight thermoplastic automotive body construction
- Helping build expertise in Norway’s electric vehicle ecosystem
Norway later became the world leader in EV adoption, with electric cars eventually dominating new vehicle sales.
Although the Think brand itself no longer produces vehicles, the lessons learned from the PIV4 and Think City helped influence the development of later electric vehicles and urban mobility concepts.
The evolution of the PIV4 and Think City reflects the ambitious efforts of a small Norwegian company to revolutionize urban transportation decades before electric vehicles became mainstream. Beginning with experimental prototypes in the early 1990s, the project eventually produced one of the world’s earliest highway-capable electric city cars.
Produced in two main generations between 2000 and 2012, the Think City demonstrated both the promise and the challenges of early electric vehicle manufacturing. Financial struggles ultimately ended the program, but the vehicle remains an important milestone in the history of electric mobility.
Today, the Think City is remembered as a pioneering EV—one that helped lay the groundwork for the electric vehicle revolution that followed.
